Pressure Groups Essay

Pressure groups play an important role in indian politics Pressure groups provide the link between the people and the government. A pressure group is an organised body of individuals who share some goals and who try to influence public policy. Pressure groups are a vital part of a healthy democracy. Indeed the sustained and rapid expansion of pressure group activity and involvement in the political process is often heralded as a sign of growing political involvement among many thousands of people. Pressure groups Promote discussion and debate and mobilise public opinion on key issues ,they perform a role in educating citizens about specific issues , they can enhance democratic participation, pluralism and diversity, they raise and articulate issues that political parties perhaps won’t touch because of their sensitivity e. g. The 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement were a series of demonstrations and protests across India which intended to establish strong legislation and enforcement against endemic political corruption. ake the example of the recent gang rape case. The people of delhi, and then the entire country joined to form a pressure group and forced the govt. to make fast track courts so that the culprits could be punished as soon as possible. There is intense pressure on the government to make harsher laws for rape . pressure groups provide an important access point for those seeking redress of grievance They represent minorities who cannot represent themselves Groups can be an important and valuable source of specialist information for an overloaded legislature and civil service Many groups play an important role in implementing changes to public policy Pressure groups encourage a decentralisation of power within the political system. They act as a check and balance to the power of executive government. Several laws have been made , several ministers and beaureacrats who were corrupt, were asked to go because of the pressure groups. Several states have been made because of pressure groups. Prices of public utilities like electricity , water have been reduced because of pressure groups. Farmers have got the right price for their commodities because of pressure groups. So we can see that pressure groups are a must for democracy, and they strengthen democracy and not weaken it.

Unearthing the meaning behind “the matrix”

What will you do if one day you wake up plugged into a computer, and that computer gives you a reality that is far from what you know? Will it change anything? Will it give less sense of the things that you thought are real? The Matrix is a dazzling depiction of the adventure of a computer programmer as he seeks to find answers to his mind’s multitude of questions. The Matrix was first shown on March 1999. It is a futuristic film which predicted that in the near future, humans’ lives will revolve around Matrix, a simulated reality. It tells the story of a computer programmer who lives under the pseudonym â€Å"Neo†. At the same time, he’s also a hacker who’s been dying to know the real enigma that lies behind the Matrix. In his desperation to find answers, he came across Morpheus, a man who promised him that he’d know the answer if he’d swallow a red pill. Neo doubtfully obeyed Morpheus and after he took the pill, he is unconsciously taken to a strange place wherein his body is connected to a wide array of wires. He woke up to an artificial program that nurses human beings by sustaining them with manufactured and trashed realities. He is rescued by a group of escapees by removing him from the pod that he’s attached with. The group saved Neo, for they believe that he is the one destined who will save the humankind from their doom. In the latter part, Neo found out that he’s in the year 2199 wherein a current rage between humans and intelligent machines is happening. Neo came to a realization that the world that he has inhabited in 1999 is just an illusion. It was made and developed by certain intelligent machines to keep the human population peaceful. Thus, it gave birth to the name Matrix. Morpheus and his team are lucky enough for they are free. Their duty is to remove other humans from their attachment to the Matrix and in return give them inhumane abilities. They believe that Neo is â€Å"the One† who will end the war because of his infinite control over the Matrix. To completely become a member of the group, Neo is trained to possess several self-defense disciplines which primarily include martial arts. Alongside with this, he’s also informed of the dangers that entail the Matrix life.   All the injuries that he will acquire in the Matrix will manifest in his physical body in the real world. As the time progressed, Neo gradually tagged along with the team’s operations. The group entered Matrix wherein Neo met the Oracle. She told Neo that he possessed a gift for being â€Å"the One† but that he is waiting for something. After this, the group was ambushed by Agents, the fast programs whose aim is to eradicate any threats to the simulation. Unfortunately, Morpheus is the only one who was captured by the Agents. All the members of Neo’s group died except him, Tank, Trinity and Morpheus. It turned out that they were betrayed by their own member, Cypher. A lot of things still happened but one of the most gripping scenes is when Neo is captured by the Agents and he was shot dead by one of them. Neo should’ve been dead if not for Trinity who kissed him. Long before that occurrence, Trinity was already warned that she would fall in love with â€Å"the One†. It’s hard for her to accept Neo’s sudden death so she kissed Neo. To her surprise, Neo’s heart starts beating again. The Agents tried to shoot him but Neo just raised his pal and stopped their bullets in the mid-air.   And finally, Neo saw the Matrix- an infinite number of streaming green lines. Hence, he became â€Å"The One†. The Matrix is indeed one of the most compelling examples that can illustrate some of the facets of the cultural anthropology. Anthropology, as defined â€Å"is the study of humankind, both ancient and contemporary.† (www2.cedarcrest.edu) Anthropology also examines the various facets of the society without any biases. Thus, it envisages society without putting any kind of stereotypes. The Matrix contains a lot of implications that which in return are just manifestations of humankind. The film somehow portrayed that humankind is currently driven by a lot of implicit yet unnoticeable things. Some might think that The Matrix is just a great and dazzling action movie but if you’ll really scratch beneath the surface, you’ll discover that a lot of realities about humankind are hidden in the film.   Innumerable people have watched this movie, but only few really understood the superb analogy that covers the film. Cultural anthropology is indeed vast as it curtains a lot of cultures from different sides of the world. However, The Matrix was able to come up with a coherent comprehension of what is happening in the cultures right now. Cultures now including its people are living in an illusory world that’s full of deceits, slavedom, economic turmoil, fear, media stereotypes and material indulgence. What humankinds fail to realize is that a real Matrix also exists within their cultures. They are driven by the wrong things that they gradually forget to value the things that really matter. Because of their struggle to be wealthy and powerful, their task to nurture and enrich their culture is disregarded. The Matrix gives the image of an existence that’s full of superficiality and trivialities. The image shows that people do everything to block an upsetting reality by wallowing themselves with material pretensions. It is quite intoxicating for some cultures that are drenched in wealth while the other cultures are wallowing in misery. The Matrix can also be connected to cultural anthropological perspectives as it neatly depicts the demarcation that the cultures have right now. The film evidently showed the conflict that’s present between Neo’s side and the Agents. It showed that cultures, despite some of their similarities with other cultures will still remain to be poles apart. It is primarily because these cultures live up to diverse ideals and beliefs. The Matrix is undeniably a worth watching film because it’s not just an ordinary action movie full of explosions, special effects, and adrenalins.   It is a movie that truly makes sense as it will help the people to reflect and realize what’s really going on. The film might also show them how to modify their distorted principles about their cultures. A film like this is quite moving because it offers the possible things that might happen to humankind in the future if the continuous clashing of culturally-acclaimed principles will continue. Although you have to really ponder on the film to see its relation with cultural anthropology, it’s still worth-watching because of its profound illustration. The entire hidden implications of the film are completely and utterly true. The Matrix is a ground-breaking film as it changed how action and sci-fi movies are supposed to be made. It demonstrated its own unique sense as it made people change how they look at their cultures. There are lots of symbolisms that were used in the film. Nevertheless, the spirit of humankind still managed to shine in its own way. Neo's journey toward understanding his real fate teaches a lot of lesson regarding culture. The diversities of the people in the film can be clearly related to the present culture. It gives a lot of anthropological manifestations, yet it still pursued the coherence of the factors that revolved around the film. The movie has generated a lot of controversies and questions until now- questions that remain undiscovered and will still continue to raise unfathomable debates and discussions. It was a revolutionary movie filled with mind-boggling questions and intrigues. Though many films before have already demonstrated their assumptions, nothing can beat The Matrix as it presented its ideas in a more graphical way.   In the end, it just sums up the film in a single question: â€Å"Are we really living in a real world right now?† References Cedarcrest Education. (2008. April). The Anthropological Perspective. Retrieved April 26 2008, from http://www2.cedarcrest.edu/academic/socsci/anthropology_perspective.htm ;

Do all arguements about abortion come down to the question of what is Research Paper

Do all arguements about abortion come down to the question of what is the moral status of a fetus Explain - Research Paper Example It is obviously an important decision since it concerns the life of a human being. The life in question includes that of the mother carrying the child as well as the fetus itself. Theories of abortion follow most arguments concerning faith and different situations that a pregnant woman is in. in the situation of endangered life, even morality ought to reason with abortion as the right thing to do. Morality thus, ought to help pregnant persons who are in harsh situations obtain help. In the event of an ectopic pregnancy for example, the lives of both the mother and her child face possibilities of loss. It is only reasonable, with the agreement of professional medical healthcare, that a single life at least be saved. In the event that abortion is not carried out, then there are chances of losing both lives. Antagonists of abortion argue that it is moral to save a life than lose both lives of a mother and her child. Due to the need for a law for abortion in countries, it is important to consider all perspectives provided by theories. Theories concerning abortion or any other matter are a presentation of people’s opinion. In considering theories therefore, the government and other authorities should always consider theories when assessing what to legalize and what not to legalize. Where abortion is illegal, many cases of illegal procedures are reported. Such cases present danger to the lives of young people. Morality is thus useful when educating youths on prevention measures that may lead to pregnancy. It should all the same, not victimize them and other adults in the event that an unwanted pregnancy occurs. Morality should ensure that persons with unwanted pregnancies or whose lives are at risk for whatever reason obtain useful medical help. For an abortion to be carried out successfully, it need not present after effects of barrenness on the woman it is carried out on. Such public and lawful encouragement to professional procedure encourages health safety and reduces further damages arising from the procedure. Abortion is firstly a personal concern for the mother of the child in question. It is necessary as couples make the decision to get rid of a child, that they take into consideration all aspects of knowledge concern the procedure. This is because even though morality discourages abortion, it cannot impose forcefully on a person’s decision making. It can only ensure they are informed. As an act, abortion can be complicated and harmful to the women who undergo it. With such provisions as professional healthcare that allows safe procedures, affordable costs for the same, then abortion will be less demonized. It is also important all the same to realize the harm abortion can cause and why is better to prevent a pregnancy in the first place than worry about getting rid of it. Assumptions made by moralistic reason claim that a person carrying out an abortion may do it out of careless living and lack of concern for their lives and those of others. Such being possibilities, it is very important to emphasize and preach contraception among people who are sexually active. Morality is very essential as a means to argue abortion. However, it should not be made a way of fanatics. Morality hence should base its arguments on reason and scientific evidence. It is also necessary that the law emphasize its borders in order to avoid any form of intolerance on the part of pregnant women seeking abortion. Assertions concerning

LED-Based Stage Light Capable of Control via DMX512 Dissertation

LED-Based Stage Light Capable of Control via DMX512 - Dissertation Example DMX is an acronym of "Digital Multiplexing†. The DMX founded lighting control is premeditated to create, organize and dispense information to DMX-well-suited lighting fixtures. DMX512 is a regular reference for digital communication arrangements that are usually utilized to direct stage illumination and special effects. It was initially proposed as a standardized plot for scheming light dimmers, which, earlier to DMX512, had used assorted unsuited, proprietary procedures. Conversely, it later became the chief technique for connecting not only controllers and dimmers, but also supplementary sophisticated fixtures and special effects strategies for example fog machines and automated lights and has also extended to implications in non-theatrical architectural illumination; DMX512 has been utilized starting from the beauty of Christmas lightening to billboards which are electronically operated through LEDs. Microcontrollers are utilized in routinely manipulated products and applian ces, for example vehicle engine management systems, operational medical appliances, distant controls, office equipment etc. By minimizing the dimension and expenditure evaluated against a design that utilized a detached memory chip, memory, and input/output accessories, microcontrollers formulate it reasonable to electronically organize extra appliances and processes. In this project, the intended objective is to design a system of illuminating stage LEDs controlled by DMX 512. The same protocols as defined by DMX 51 are employed in this project. TABLE OF CONTENTS Number Topic Pages 1 Introduction 1 2 Project Aim 2 3 Project Approach 2-3 4 Operating Components 4 i. Serial UART 4-5 ii. USART Registers 5-11 iii. HyperTerminal 11-12 iv. USB-RS485 Board 13-16 v. RS485-ATMEGA8 Board 17-19 vi. LEDs 19-21 5 Software Implementation 22-23 6 Conclusion 24 Bibliography 25 1. Introduction DMX in general is a mechanism of scheming "smart" lighting fixtures and dimmers. Technically, DMX is a furt her contraction for DMX512-A, updated by Entertainment Services Technology Association abbreviated as the ESTA. DMX512-A is the Standard for controlling illumination equipment and connected appliances.1 In current years, the DMX customary is being utilized more commonly in Architectural illumination projects, as well as lightening of building outer walls, inflection lighting, wide-ranging usage building organization and housing lighting. This is appropriate chiefly to the elevated fame of LED founded on lighting fixtures, which are commonly manipulated through DMX electronic pointers. An extensive diversity of illumination control consoles, manipulators and additional appliances that produce DMX signals can be utilized to attach to an even better diversity of illumination fixtures and appliances that can be manipulated by DMX. DMX manipulated lighting schemes are utilized in many specialized events, for example concert illumination, stage automated lighting, studio lights, and theme park illumination etc. In this project, three colors i.e. RGB-Red, Green, and Blue LEDs are utilized where each region is applicable to all three colors. The DMX manipulator regulates the strength i.e. in intensity of each of these colors so that any required color can be formed. One or more LED drivers are concentrated on to exclusive DMX channel, and those drivers, against the DMX channel instructs, put the intensity value of the LEDs they control. 2. Project Aim The project aims to devise a stage-style light which utilized LEDs as the light resource and is alterable by means of the standard DMX512 protocol, and is competent of producing a variety of output colors. The major endeavor of this project is to organize the color of LED radiance through a DMX controller. The DMX controller discussed in this project is entirely automated through a computer. A simple logic of a program is also founded during the project. 3. Project Approach DMX is separated into four sectors or zones in which every sector comprises of

Reflective Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Reflective Portfolio - Essay Example To make the best use of the funds as well as for the provision of the best care at care homes the public care body introduced numerous policy initiatives. This is made more visible by the National Health Systems (NHS) Plan as well as the reaction of the government towards the Royal Commission on the Long Term Care. The reason behind this has been the helplessness of the residents, the impacts of the demographic changes upon the number of the old people requiring residential care such as subsidy. It has further been noted that there is high cost associated with such care. Therefore, it is quite important to comprehend the key aspects of such health care provisions (Personal Social Services Research Unit, 2001). With the partnership among the local authority and the NHS, the social care related services are generally provided in Cambridgeshire. It has been evident that the Cambridgeshire Community Services NHS Trust aims at serving the older people with all the necessary health as well as the social care related support that can be made available at one place (Cambridgeshire Country Council, 2011). However, it has been noted that there is discrepancy in the provision of the services to the people under the NHS scheme. ... B. Framework of Legislation, Codes Of Practice Influencing Social Care I. National Care Standards Commission Regulations and Standards It is worth mentioning that the care homes for the older people need to meet the National Minimum Standards that have been identified by the National Care Standards Commission in order to determine if the care homes tend to meet the needs of such standards, as well as work for the welfare of the people living there. The standards tend to verify that whether the care homes consist of the individuals who may work at unique and complex situations. In addition to this the individuals need to possess specific skills and knowledge that may be required to deliver individually tailored as well as all-inclusive services. There are various themes that support the drafting of the National Minimum Standards for the care home of the elderly people. The regulators are supposed to comply with the various themes that have been drafted. While applying the standards it is important for the regulator to prove that the policies, the activities the facilities as well as the services that the care centre provides will deliver positive results. While applying the standards the inspector may ask for evidences that prove that the care homes are meeting the needs of the service users and their changing needs are taken care of. Since it is the manager along with the staffs who are responsible for looking after the old age people in such care homes, therefore in implementing the standards the regulators may look for the evidences that tend to show that the managers as well as the staffs of the particular health care organisation have achieved TOPSS requirement which is understood as The National Training Organisation for social care (Department of

Market prices, Valuation Principle, Net present Value, interest rates, Essay

Market prices, Valuation Principle, Net present Value, interest rates, and bonds - Essay Example Through the market price, the financial managers can easily know the current price of the products and services of the company and also can estimate the future price of the products and services. The managers can also be aware of the price of the raw materials and other necessary things that are required for the smooth functioning of the business. Another essential thing that is important and can be known through the current market price is the requirement of working capital of a business. Moreover, through these the future working capital requirement can also be met. Understanding the current price of the debentures and shares is also of high value for the finance manager. The price of the share and debenture are of great importance to the financial manager because through these prices the total share capital and the value of the business can be calculated. Furthermore, on the basis of these values and financial structure, the firm can expect higher investment from the public. Hence , on the basis of the above analysis it can be said that the market price is highly useful to the financial manager (Investopedia, n.d.) Question 2: Discuss How the Valuation Principle Helps a Financial Manager Make Decisions Valuation is the method of judging the potential market value of the assets and liabilities of a firm. Valuation is essential and is required in the business for the future prospects. The work of valuation generally arises from mergers, acquisition, valuation of assets and liabilities. The valuation principle is of great importance to the finance manager in order to make the decisions regarding the future possibilities of the firm. Risk is associated with every aspects of the business. Through different valuation techniques, the finance manager can estimate the future risk associated with the business or any other projects. After considering the level of risk the finance manager can estimate the profits associated with the businesses and projects. The valuation principle helps the finance manager to estimate the outlook of the assets and liabilities of the business and can also make an assessment for the future requirements by the business house. Tax assessment is one of the important aspects of the business for the finance manager. Hence, with the various tools of the valuation principles, the finance manager can easily estimate the tax structure of the future. For assessing the financial feasibility and viability of the future, the principles of valuation play a significant role in the job profile of the finance manager. Moreover, in case of mergers and acquisitions, the valuation principles are needed for the business with the available in-depth financial information of the company. Hence, it can be concluded that the valuation principles are of high importance to the financial manager in order to make decisions (Blackburn, 2001). Question 3: Describe How the Net Present Value Is Related To Cost-Benefit Analysis The distinction between the present value of cash inflows and cash outflows is known as the Net Present V

Is There a Constitutional Right to Possess a Firearm for Private Use Research Paper

Is There a Constitutional Right to Possess a Firearm for Private Use - Research Paper Example Body The Second Amendment provides a general rule for the right to bear arms, and under such provision, the right to possess firearms for private use seems to be clear-cut and undeniable. The Supreme Court has provided various rulings for the application of this right. In the 2008 District of Columbia v. Heller case, the SC held that the Second Amendment indeed protects the right of the people as private citizens to bear arms. This ruling basically declared that individuals were legally protected in their right to keep a loaded gun in their home for their self-defense (Vicini, 2008). This ruling however did not settle any misgivings on the part of individuals who did not favor the legalization, as well as the widespread use and bearing of arms. To this date therefore, this ruling is still controversial; and for various individuals with legal considerations on the case they would not likely hesitate in seeking other interpretations of this right by the courts. The right to bear arms h as long since been considered a universal right, especially during the earliest years of the world’s history when wars were rampant and disputes were often settled through violent skirmishes (Hollister, 1962). The precursors of guns included bows and arrows, spears, and other harmful and deadly weapons, like swords and daggers. The right to possess and bear arms was firmly supported, retained, and expanded. All serfs, tenants, and subjects of the state and of the crown were required to bear arms in order to protect the state (Lyon, 1980). Various evolutions of armaments and weapons were seen throughout the years, and the people were also required to bear arms when they would travel, attend fairs, or when they would go to markets (Lyon, 1980). The people were even asked to train in the use of long-bows and other arms in order to ensure their protection. In the 1500s in England, the crown decided to ban firearms (meaning, bows and arrows); instead a militia was to be trained in the use of these arms (Bagley and Rowley, 1965). This militia would be considered the armed citizenry of the English political system. This move however backfired when the militia turned on the crown and gained temporary control of the government (Bagley and Rowley, 1965). This prompted the Parliament to order the search and destruction of all arms from all opponents of the crown. As the crown was later restored, the military government’s reign ended. In general, all arms by the militia were banned and confiscated (Malcolm, 1980). This control of the militia was carried over to the control of Britain over its American colonies. After persistent moves by the British government to control its American colonials, including their rights to bear arms, the need to protect the right to bear arms became an even bigger necessity (Patterson, 1973).

Research Methods Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Research Methods - Assignment Example This paper is an evaluation of an article by Belon et al.,(2007) discussing research methodology and implications for research in homeopathy. Groundwater arsenic contamination poses a great risk to millions of people worldwide. Since supply of arsenic free water is inadequate, a pilot study was conducted to determine if homeopathic remedies Arsenicum Album 30 and Arsenicum Album 200 have beneficial effects on a random population of Ghetugachi and Dakshin Panchpota, which are arsenic contaminated villages (Khuda-Buksh et al.,2005). Improvement in their general health as well as blood toxicity levels was observed on administration of homeopathic therapies (Milazzo, et al., 2006). However, during the investigation, the volunteers were strictly advised to refrain from taking arsenic contaminated water. This created doubt as to whether the changes observed were due to the homeopathic remedies or intake of the arsenic free water (Moffett et al., 2006). Therefore the present study by Belon et al,.(2007), was organised in an arsenic-contaminated village where arsenic free drinking water was unavailable. The parameters used in the study are either directly or indirectly implicated to the development of hapato-toxicity, and are important toxicity biomarkers. A hepato-toxic change is a primary feature associated with chronic arsenic poisoning and can lead to modulation of lipid peroxidation (LPO), which is associated with tissue damage and necrosis. 39 subjects comprising of 20 males and 19 females, showing no initial signs or symptoms of arsenic poisoning from the village of Dasdiya which has been recently marked as an arsenic-contaminated village, in Haringhata block under Nadia District, West Bengal volunteered by signing a consent form. Nevertheless, initially some participants were initially reluctant. The volunteers represented a subset of the population making Belon’s procedure convenient. It may be costly for an entire population to participate in a

Courage (To Kill A Mockingbird) Essay Example for Free

Courage (To Kill A Mockingbird) Essay The dictionary definition for courage is- Courage is the quality of mind that enables one to face danger or difficulty with confidence, resolution, and gain a firm control of oneself. Many of the characters in To Kill a Mockingbird show courage in their own way. Courage can come in many different forms: physical, mental, emotional and moral. Atticus shows courage throughout the novel while he stands up for what he believes is right even though he knows the majority of people disagree with his views. Atticus sees differently because he went to university and he got an education where he learnt about values and equality whereas the people of Maycomb who do not have the same education are basing their decision on what their family taught them and being from the south they have been taught to discriminate against which is why they treat Tom Robinson so unfairly. Atticus is also forced to shoot the mad dog (106-107) which is against his moral standards but he knew he had to kill it, not only to protect the people of Maycomb, he also had to put the dog out of its misery which took a lot of his strength and courage. Mrs Dubose shows courage and determination when she recognises that she has a flaw and that she has to fix it. She is addicted to Morphine and makes a goal to die free of her weakness. She goes through a time of withdrawal that is difficult to survive. She finishes her goal before she dies. She enlists Jem to read to her every Saturday as a way of distracting herself. It still takes a great amount of self-confidence to be able to recognise that one has a flaw and even more to do something about it. Scout shows a large amount of courage in the scene where Atticus goes down to the jailhouse in an attempt to try and protect Tom Robinson. After he arrives at the jail, a group of men appear in the jail with the intention of killing Robinson. Atticus is prepared to defend him, but he is thrown off guard when his children enter the situation. This makes Atticus nervous that his children are in danger. That was when Scout stepped up to the men and talked them down from attacking Tom and Atticus. Another example of courage is when Scout rolls the tire into the Radley yard. She is terrified when she realises where she is and her immediate reaction is to run straight back to the street. When she gets back Jem tells her to go back and get the tyre but Jem ends up doing it anyway. When Jem returns he accuses Scout of being a sissy girl. What he doesnt know because Scout decided not to tell him is that Scout heard laughter from inside the house. That is why she ran out so fast, forgetting the tyre. But she chose not to explain this to them.

International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts Essay Example for Free

International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts Essay Bloodstain pattern analysis is one technique of several in the discipline of forensic science. This technique of using bloodstains as evidences is not new; however, the application of modern science has made bloodstain analysis more and more reliable (Wikipedia). When current technologies and advances within DNA analysis become available to enforcement agencies, the apprehension of criminals and offenders become less problematic (Wikipedia). The forensic science of bloodstain pattern analysis applies scientific knowledge from other disciplines in order to solve a myriad of practical problems. Bloodstain pattern analysis can draw on biology, chemistry, math, and physics, among others (Wikipedia). When an analyst follows a strict scientific process, this applied science can produce strong, solid evidence (Wikipedia). This is an imperative tool when in the hands of law enforcement. An understanding of bloodstain analysis may allow first responders to a crime scene the know-how in currently collecting and preserving any bloodstain data (Wikipedia). Bloodstain analysts receive specialized training. The foundation course in bloodstain pattern analysis is the Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course. This is taught at many government and private institutions. The course criterion was developed by the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) with the following stated purpose: A course of instruction designed for investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic technicians, and others involved in criminal and medical-legal investigations and crime scene analysis. The course is intended to develop a fundamental knowledge of the discipline of bloodstain pattern analysis. The course should illustrate to the student basic principals of bloodstain pattern analysis and the practical application of the discipline to actual casework. The course syllabus is not intended to create an â€Å"instant† expert. There are three classifications of bloodstains: passive, projected, and transfer/contact. These classifications were developed by the IABPA. Passive stains are developed when the acting force creating it is gravity. A passive pattern is then divided into three sub-categories: passive drop, drip pattern, and flow pattern (IABPA). Passive drops are created by the force of gravity alone, and the drip pattern is created when blood drips into blood. The flow pattern is a change in shape or direction due to influence of gravity or movement of the object (IABPA). Projected blood patterns are the result of an energy source being transferred through blood. There are several types: low velocity impact spatter (LVIS), medium velocity impact spatter (MVIS), high velocity impact spatter (HVIS), and expiratory blood (IABPA). The three types of velocity impact patterns are caused when an impact at either a low, medium, or high velocity make contact with the blood source (i. e. medium impact = a battery; high impact = a gunshot). An expiratory pattern is blown out of the nose, mouth, or a wound as a result of air pressure and/or air flow which is the propelling force (IABPA). A transfer/contact stain is the result of a blood bearing object coming in contact with a non-blood bearing object – thus causing the transfer of blood. Two types of transfer/contact patterns are the wipe and swipe pattern. A wipe bloodstain pattern created when an object moves through an existing stain, removing and/or altering its appearance. A swipe pattern is the transfer of blood from a moving source onto an unstained surface (IABPA). Blood splatter flight characteristics show that blood tends to form a sphere in flight opposed to the artistic teardrop shape. This is the result in the surface tension that binds the molecules together. This spherical shape is important to the calculation angle of incidence of blood when it hits a surface. This angle is then used to determine the point of origin (PO) – the original area where the blood originated in (Wikipedia). In 1954, Marilyn Sheppard was bludgeoned to death in her home. Her husband, Dr. Sam Sheppard survived what he called an attack by an intruder. Dr. Sheppard reported that he had been knocked unconscious as he tried to defend his wife (Lyle). Their home was ransacked. Investigators would come to realize that Dr. Sheppard had no blood located on his body nor clothing, and he denied ever cleaning up before the police arrived (Lyle). This troubled the police. The attack was so brutal that the killer would have been covered in blood, and Dr. Shepard should have had blood transfers located on his body or clothes. Sheppard had no blood located on his hands, which would be impossible because he said he checked for a pulse of his wife’s neck, which was covered in blood. Furthermore, Sheppard claimed that his watch, wallet, ring and keys were missing. This was true. A bag with these items was found no too far from the house; however, they had to traces of blood. Moreover, Sheppard’s pants had no blood on them – impossible is the killer robbed him with bloody hands (Lyle). The watch, however, did have traces of blood. Theses blood splatters came from flying droplets, indicating that the watch must have been close when the victim was received the fatal blows. If the watch made contact with her neck – as he checked for a pulse – the watch would have blood smears and not droplets (Lyle). Police determined that Dr. Sheppard most likely bludgeoned his wife to death. Then he cleaned himself and trashed the items outside the house were police would find them and made the house look as if it was a burglary (Lyle). Based in large part on the blood evidence, or lack of it, Sheppard was convicted of murder. After spending ten years in prison, Sheppard was released when the U. S. Supreme Court overturned his conviction. A representative from the coroner’s office stated that the blood located on Sheppard’s watch represented a blood splatter. This means the watch must have present when the blows were struck (Lyle). A renowned criminalist, Dr. Paul Kirk testified that the blood on the watch was a result of Sheppard checking his wife’s pulse. If so, why was the watch found outside the house? This controversy still surrounds the case. In 2004, Nick Berg was horrifically murdered by insurgents in Iraq. His throat was cut and he was decapitated. His body was found by an Iraqi overpass. The tape was on review on May 11, 2004 for a type of bloodstain analysis. Laura Mansfield, certified in bloodstain analysis by the Laboratory of Forensic Science and is a member of the IABPA, begins her analysis of the footage (Crime Library). It’s reported: â€Å"The time displays 13:45:47 in the lower right corner, the victim is pushed onto his left side where his legs are bent at the knees and raised toward his chest and his arms still tied behind his back. At this point, the video becomes out of focus and essentially useless for the purposes of analysis from approximately 90 frames. As the video comes back into focus, the primary assailant is viewed using the knife to cut the throat of the victim, beginning at the area near his left carotid artery. Almost immediately, blood is seen pouring onto the floor (target surface) from the wound caused by the incision (Crime Library). † There appears to be an edit point. At this point the primary insurgent is no longer holding the knife. â€Å"The individual wearing the white hood and previously standing on the right side of the primary assailant is now using the knife in a saw-like manner, holding the knife in (his) right hand while holding the victims hair with (his) left hand. At 13:47:xx, the individual wearing the white hood ultimately detaches the victims head from his body and holds the head outward in (his) left hand, still holding the knife in (his) right (Crime Library). † The frames that follow appear to jump, at which time the victim’s head is completely detached and the primary object in the frame. Through out the video, time changes frequently from military time back to â€Å"regular† time and vice versa. â€Å"Interestingly, the time display on the video changes to 2:46:20 (regular time format) and then switches back to 13:48:45 (military format) while the victims head is shown detached from his body in a similar series of frames (Crime Library). † Bloodstain pattern analysis is an age-old technique, which with new technologies and advancements aid in the capture and prosecution of criminals. This analysis procedure is used in many different ways and draw upon a myriad of disciplines. In result of a strict process, bloodstain pattern analysis will prove solid, concrete evidence and is a useful tool in the hands of law enforcement. References IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List. Date visited 8 April 2006. http://www. iabpa. org/Terminology. pdf Lyle, D. P. , MD. Uncovering the Evidence: Those Messy Bloodstains. Forensics for Dummies. John Wiley Sons Inc. p. 98 Nick Berg Tape. Crime Library. Court Tv. Date visited 8 April 2006. http://www. crimelibrary. com/about/authors/mansfield/ Wikipedia Online. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis. Date visited 9 April 2006. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Bloodstain_pattern_analysis

The Legalization Of Euthanasia Law Essay

The Legalization Of Euthanasia Law Essay The question of life has been very intriguing over time and across space; more specifically the question of when life begins and when life should end. With regard to when life should end, a lot of ethical nuances are faced- euthanasia in perspective. The word euthanasia comes from the Greek words eu and thanatos which respectively means good and death thus good death (Seamus and Shean 8). By extension, the term is also used interchangeably with easy death and mercy killing among others. The questions which should linger everybodys minds should revolve around the true meaning of life and definition of the very moment it ends or rather should end. In addition, who should determine this particular moment when life begins and by what standards? Is euthanasia right or wrong? Above all, should it be legalized? If yes why and if no why? That is why Seamus and Shean (11) refer to it as a simple thing yet very complicated. This paper explores the two divides of the subject on what arguments do the proponents and opponents of the exercise put forward and what is their basis. In essence, this write up tries to look at these arguments in a more critical sense and an informed conclusion is arrived at. According to Jennifer, Martha and Carolyn Roberts (1), euthanasia is either active or passive; active and passive in the sense that the magnitude of the actions deems them so. The latter involves indirect participation of the person administering care, for instance, of a sick person, through among other things, stopping food supply (2). On the other hand, active euthanasia is either voluntary, involuntary or non-voluntary in which the patient requests for it, the patient has not requested for it but is suffering too much (mercy killing) or the patient is not in a position to give consent about what they want. This kind of distinction is important since it shall give insights on what conditions should lead to justified euthanasia. This is well seen in Contemporary Moral Problems in which White, James E. (11) distinguishes between causing a persons death and letting a person die. He also talks of the duty to die. The big question is whether the act(s) discussed above should be legalized or allowed by law. The question of legalization or criminalization of euthanasia needs a multi-disciplinary approach that is combining perspectives in, for instance, Law, Theology and Philosophy (Otlowski, Margaret 187). Due to the sensitivity of the issue, a compromise between the perspectives of all disciplines, or at least the major ones, has to be arrived at. In practical terms, due to diverse philosophical, medical, theological and moral dispositions, unanimity may not be possible. But one thing is clear; that modernity is a chief determinant of any position on euthanasia. The basic argument in support of euthanasia, especially the active voluntary euthanasia is that every person has the right to choose what they feel is best for them. According to Otlowski, Margaret (188), once a patient requests a doctor to perform euthanasia on them, then such doctor(s) should not be afraid of the exercise as it is not criminal- in this case. The author argues that the law is discriminatory as long as it does not allow the principle of self-determination to hold for patients who are terminally ill. On the other hand the opponents of the claim assert that there can never be a genuine system of verification on whether a patient truly asked for it. Further, terminally ill patients may lack sobriety of mind to know what befits them. Therefore in this case, a doctor may, in law, perform euthanasia. Does an individual have a right to commit suicide? This question can lead us to an answer to yet another question on whether a patient is justified to request to be killed. Proponents argue that persons who assist others end their lives should not be considered to have assisted in suicide because in Otlowski Margarets view, since the Common Law gives individuals some constrained liberty (not right) to end their lives, then such persons should be free to seek related assistance if they are not able. In another perspective, euthanasia should not be outlawed because different human rights stipulations propose peoples right to fair treatment and non-subjection to degrading conditions (terminal illnesses). In addition, a perspective transcending human rights (in the realm of legal rights) provides for peoples right to die. Consequently, States should have a duty to enforce this right. All persons should have a dignified death. Some people have argued that legal permissibility is preceded by moral uprightness and since some people consider euthanasia to be morally right, then it should be legally allowed. This argument is similar with the abortion argument; that since abortions are already happening, they should be institutionalized for safety purposes. In retrospect, euthanasia is no different. The case against the legalization of euthanasia has various reasoning directions. Opponents of euthanasia such as Sullivan and Kelly mainly use the doctrinal approach in which it is put that despite the circumstances, euthanasia is bad. This collection of reasoning includes, among others, the fact the human life is sacrosanct and human suffering adds value to life. The collectivity of reasoning based on pragmatism against legalization of euthanasia include the wedge argument, its effects on the society, uncertainty of a patients consent, the nuances involved in choosing the right criterion, a negligible need for euthanasia, that efforts on medical research are paralyzed and so on. In demystifying the above reasons, Otlowski Margaret has outlined some good insights (212-246). The doctrinal thinking purports that human life is intrinsically valuable in which nobody gives this value. It is inherent in each person and nobody, including that sick person, has the discretion to take it away or influence such activity leading to its end. Regarding illness, persons should do their best to prolong others life. The Ten Commandments expressly prohibits intentional killing. In a more pragmatic perspective, legalization of euthanasia would lead to more social problems on life if it has not emanated from another life-ending exercise. In other words, countries which have legalized euthanasia had earlier legalized abortion thereby leading to more aged people who are economically handicapped and the need to reduce them. Such legal inclusion would further lead to rampant killings without genuine basis. This is popularly known as the wedge principle. It further stipulates that the pro-euthanasia side always has a hidden agenda beyond the face value. In moral grounds, there is no difference between any kind of euthanasia including that which the proponents push for legal entrenchment that is active voluntary euthansia. Legalization of euthanasia would lead to more killings which are not accounted for since it is not always easy to verify whether indeed the disease was incurable and that money to clear medical bills could not be afforded. The opponents of legal euthanasia purport that there is always possibility of error in diagnosis which would lead to assertion that a disease would be incurable. Even if the diagnosis was correct, cure is always possible since in history, people claimed to be ever-ill have healed. Terminal illnesses are not the leading killer in the world and should not be included in the Law of the country. Instead, governments should spend much effort in trying to curb killer diseases like Malaria, Tuberculosis and AIDS. If euthanasia were to be legalized, there shall exist some tense relationship between doctors and patients who are very ill in fear that they cold be killed anytime thereby possibly dying of this fear. Above all, legalization of euthanasia would discourage medical research on cure to some serious diseases. In deciding whether to legalize euthanasia or not, several things should thus be put into consideration. In whatever is done, nobody should harm the other. In Libertarian Principle, the law should protect citizens from all harm and safeguard their interests and values. Legislators have to agree that there exists a relationship between moral and civil law because the latter was made possible by an innate consciousness that some things were right others wrong. While legalization of euthanasia sounds more liberal, the effects it has on the society are far much lethal.

Romeo And Juliet- Emotions :: essays research papers

Images of Emotions in "Romeo and Juliet" One of William Shakespeare's most famous plays is "Romeo and Juliet." I believe the reason for this is its sense of reality and idealism. This paper will present images of human emotions in "Romeo and Juliet," which make this tragedy so believable. Youth and family play a big role in this tragic story. "Shakespeare delineates the hold of the patriarchal family on its children" (Kahn 18). This statement is true both then and now. Parents and elders will always have a hold on the children, but only to a certain extent. The two "noble" families of the play feel control and protection over both Juliet and Romeo; yet in the end, the only effect they have on the two lovers is that they have pushed them to the drastic measure of self-slaughter. Others say that the relation between the two time periods is in the children's disobeying of and misunderstanding of rules set before them. The youth of society tend to question and then possibly disregard the rules that are important to their parents if they do not have a good reason to believe in these rules. The rebellious actions of youth can eventually cause their own untimely destruction. (Justin K.) Although some feel that way, others say that idea is incorrect because teenagers who have been either purposely forcefully kept out of society tend to fear society rather than their own families (Bradbrook 99). I agree with Kahn, parents do have a certain magnitude of authority over the youth of society, but it will only have a limited effect. Just as the aged people of today eventually gained or were allowed their ability to make their own decisions and others, so must the younger generation be able to do. This opportunity was one never given to Romeo or Juliet they were left in a position of the second type of connection, where their only option was to go against the rules and concepts set before them. Two of the many other emotions used in this piece are prejudice and hate. They are intertwined and effect each other in ways so noticeable to us that we tend to forget that they even exist at times. "From examining 'Romeo and Juliet,' it is evident that the play shows how prejudice leads to escalating violence" (Justin K.). This, to most people, is common knowledge especially in society today, where many actions are based on racism or sexism.

Hearts Under Fire in Centralia Fire :: Film Movies

Hearts Under Fire in Centralia Fire If you want a community interest story portrayed through a film, then Centralia Fire is the one. Centralia Fire relates to anyone that is connected to at least one type of community—weather it is a town, a sport’s team, or a family. No one wants to be forced out of his or her comfort zone. Centralia is a town—created in the 19th century because of the invention of coal—filled with diverse communities threatened from poisonous gas and toxin (deadly carbon monoxide and dioxide) after a trash burning fire spread underneath the town beginning in 1962 and is still under—or should I say above—fire. The documentary is about how the communities within Centralia were stripped of their lives and families from a place they called home. The producers, Anthony â€Å"Doc† Mussari and Kathleen â€Å"Kitch† Loftus-Mussari, set the tone an individual tone through no use of music or dissolving of pictures. Viewers are able to establish their own separate opinions and understandings about the community of Centralia. If dissolves and music were incorporated the message of Centralia would have been dissolved itself. If you want to know what small time life is like, then Centralia is the place where you can find the answers. You see video of town meetings where the committees disputed the inefficiency of the government’s help. There is also footage of the daily life of Centralians-riding dirt bikes, playing little league baseball, sitting on porches, or walking dogs—amongst the many pillars of pipes releasing toxins from beneath. The essence of community life was prevalent, so I agree with on of the town’s people who said, â€Å"You have to live in a small town to know how it is to live in a small town.† Doc pulls you in and makes you one of the community members within Centralia with his atmosphere exposure through not zooming. It seemed as though the film was following the lead of the television show, You’ve been Caught on Candid Camera; the interviewees and people at the town meeting had no clue there were video cameras taping them. It’s like they video camera was hidden in someone’s shirt pocket or in someone’s glass frames. I am amazed not one person in the film looked at the camera. In 2002 only fifteen people in ten homes are keeping their fires ablaze with their strong determination and love for Centralia. Even though the film was finished in 1992—30 years after the fire in Centralia began—it still picture perfectly depicts how the lives of the community members were altered forever and how their heart have been burned from the government.

Globalization: A Closer Look at the Ford Company

A Closer Look at the Ford Company Ford Motor Company multinational cooperation that uses outsourcing to lower costs and boost productivity. Until the sass's Ford had a supply chain that allowed them to control every aspect of the making and distributing of their automobiles. From the steel and rubber plants that make the parts, to building the vehicles, storage and shipping. Though this was a good way for the companies to promote local made in America vehicles it was not however time or cost effective.As a result of competition from other automotive companies Ford made the drastic changes of outsourcing the making of parts and manufacturing to other countries to speed productivity and lower costs. The advantages to the local communities as a result of outsourcing is that there are Jobs added to the community. The local communities that may have been struggling were given the opportunities to work for a company that produces good quality parts and manufacturing vehicles more quickly. The negative effects that this may have on a community is that more people would want to work for the outsourced company which leaves more local Jobs open.Also if the cost of living may increase because of the growth from the industry, which would ultimately make living harder in those countries for the people that do not work for the outsourced company. Global stratification affects the United States positively because it decreases the cost of manufacturing as well as the cost to pay the employees. This helps the companies to save more money than to keep the business in the United States. By outsourcing the company can save more money to pay the people higher p employees in the companies.At the same time global stratification has a negative effect on the United States because it takes Jobs away from the local people. If more companies kept their businesses in the United States it would create more jobs for the people that live here instead of adding to the employment of other count ries. The outsourcing of manufacturing Jobs may be contributing to the increasing unemployment rates that the United States is experiencing. The big winner in the companies that use outsourcing is the company that does the outsourcing, in this case it is the Ford Company.Ford was able to decrease their production time from 45 to 60 days per vehicle to only 15 days with the outsourced jobs. Ford was able to keep more finished vehicles ready to be shipped to waiting customers. Ford was also able to decrease the costs of manufacturing to make a higher profit off each vehicle sold. Though the countries that are fortunate enough to be chosen to be a part of the outsourced company gains Jobs and an increase in their economy but they are still on the short end of the stick.

Eugene Nida

Eugene A. Nida  (November 11, 1914 – August 25, 2011) was a  linguist  who developed the  dynamic-equivalence  Bible-translation  theory. Nida was born in  Oklahoma City,  Oklahoma  on November 11, 1914. He became a Christian at a young age, when he responded to the altar call at his church â€Å"to accept Christ as my Saviour† He graduated from the  University of California  in 1936. After graduating he attended Camp Wycliffe, where Bible translation theory was taught. Later Nida became a founding charter member of  Wycliffe Bible Translators, a sister organization of the  Summer Institute of Linguistics.In 1937, Nida undertook studies at the  University of Southern California, where he obtained a Master’s Degree in New Testament Greek in 1939. In 1943, Nida received his Ph. D. in Linguistics from the  University of Michigan, His Ph. D. dissertation,  A Synopsis of English Syntax, was the first full-scale analysis of a major langu age according to the â€Å"immediate-constituent† theory. He began his career as a  linguist  with the  American Bible Society  (ABS). He was quickly promoted to Associate Secretary for Versions, then worked as Executive Secretary for Translations until his retirement.Nida retired in the early 1980s, although he continued to give lectures in universities all around the world, and lived in Madrid, Spain and  Brussels,  Belgium. He died in Madrid on August 25, 2011 aged 96. Nida was instrumental in engineering the joint effort between the  Vatican  and the  United Bible Societies  (UBS) to produce cross-denominational Bibles in translations across the globe. This work began in 1968 and was carried on in accordance with Nida's translation principle of Functional Equivalence. His contributions in general Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of  translation theory  and  linguistics.His most notable contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalenc e, also known as Functional Equivalence. Nida also developed the â€Å"componential-analysis† technique, which split words into their components to help determine equivalence in translation (e. g. â€Å"bachelor† = male + unmarried). This is, perhaps, not the best example of the technique, though it is the most well-known. Nida's dynamic-equivalence theory is often held in opposition to the views of  philologists  who maintain that an understanding of the  source text  (ST) an be achieved by assessing the inter-animation of words on the page, and that meaning is self-contained within the text (i. e. much more focused on achieving semantic equivalence). This theory, along with other theories of correspondence in translating, are elaborated in his essay  Principles of Correspondence,  where Nida begins by asserting that given that â€Å"no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which symbols are a rranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages.Hence, there can be no fully exact translations. † While the impact of a translation may be close to the original, there can be no identity in detail. Some of his theories in detail First major contribution: Dynamic equivalence Nida then sets forth the differences in translation, as he would account for it, within three basic factors: (1) The nature of the message: in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority. 2) The purpose of the author and of the translator: to give information on both form and content; to aim at full intelligibility of the reader so he/she may understand the full implications of the message; for imperative purposes that aim at not just understanding the translation but also at ensuring no misunderstanding of the translation. (3) The type of audience: prospective audiences di ffer both in  decoding  ability and in potential interest. Nida brings in the reminder that while there are no such things as â€Å"identical  equivalents† in translating, what one must in translating seek to do is find the â€Å"closest natural equivalent†.Here he identifies two basic orientations in translating based on two different types of equivalence: Formal Equivalence (F-E) and Dynamic Equivalence (D-E). Principle of dynamic equivalence * General introduction In Toward a Science of Translating, Nida first put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence which he defines as â€Å"the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message† (Nida,1964, p. 59). Following this principle, dynamic equivalence, as defined by Nida, is to reproduce â€Å"in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source-language message†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Nida and Taber, 1969: 12). Nida (1964: 167) particularly stresses that â€Å"a natural rendering must fit the receptor language and culture as a whole; the context of the particular message; and the receptor-language audience†. To put it plain, either the meaning or form should not sound â€Å"foreign†.The essence of dynamic equivalence is the receptor's response, in Nida's own term, â€Å"the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language† (Nida and Taber, 1969: 68). The reaction or response is based on the comprehensive reception of the message, not only understanding the meaning or content, but also feeling in the way the original readers do. By laying stress on the receptor's response, he underlines the improvement to the source text by the receptor's subjectivity and aesthetic sense. The essential features of the principle we must first know about the essential fe atures of this principle and D-E translation. As Nida himself points out, the essential features of D-E translation consists of the following points: (1) equivalent, which points toward the source-language message. (2) natural, which points toward the receptor language (3) closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation (Nida, 1964). All these points aim at arousing â€Å"similar response† between the source text readers and the target text readers.A. Equivalent As mentioned above, this aims at reproducing the message of the original text. This is the basic requirement of D-E translation, as is with any other kind of translation. That is to say, to produce a D -E translation, the translator must aim primarily at conveying the meaning of the original text, and to do anything else is essentially wrong to his task as a translator, because translation is basically a kind of communication (Nida and Taber, 1982). B. Natural A D -E translation is directed primarily towards the similarity of response.To achieve this purpose, the translation must be natural, for it is of great importance to arousing in the target readers a response similar to that of the original readers. To be natural, the equivalent forms should not be â€Å"foreign† either in terms of form, or in terms of meaning, which means that the translation should not reveal any signs of its non-native source (Nida, 1975). Nida stresses that naturalness in a D-E translation must fit these three aspects: (1) The receptor language and culture as a whole, 2) The context of the particular message, (3) The receptor-language audience (Nida, 1964). He further remarks: The best translation does not sound like a translation [It should not] exhibit in its grammatical and stylistic forms any trace of awkwardness or strangeness It should studiously avoid ‘translationese' he defines as ‘formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the cont ent and the impact of die message' (Nida and Taber, 1982). C. Closest â€Å"Closest† here is of a double nature.On the one hand, it indicates that equivalence in translation can never be absolute identity, because â€Å"loss occurs in all forms of communication, whether it involves translation or not† (Bassenet and Lefevere, 1990, p. 35). It can only be an approximation, because no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which such symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identity in detail.On the other hand, since equivalence in translation is just a kind of approximation, not absolute identity, it naturally results in the possibility to establish equivalence between the source text and the target text on various degrees or in different aspects. However, it is the highest degree that a D-E translat ion is expected to strive for. In other words, though loss of meaning is inevitable, the translator should try his best to reduce it to the minimum. D. Similar Response This is the principal aim of the D-E translation and all the above three points are directed to it.The term â€Å"response† here refers to the way in which receptors of a text understand the text, including the effect the text produces on them while â€Å"similar response† involves a comparison of two relations: the relation of the target text readers to the target text should be substantially the same to that of the source text readers to the source text. That is to say, the target text readers must not only know how the source text readers must have understood the content of the text, but they should also be able to appreciate some of the impact and appeal which such a text must have had for t he source text readers (Jin Di and Nida, 1984).Formal Correspondence in opposition to dynamic equivalence: Ni da puts forward dynamic equivalence in opposition to formal correspondence. In speaking of naturalness, he is strongly against ‘translationese' as we mentioned Basically, a formal equivalence translation, as Nida (1964, 165) states, is source-oriented, which is designated to reveal as much as possible the form and content of the original message, that is, to match as closely as possible the formal elements like grammatical units, consistency in word usage, meanings in terms of the source context, just to name some. David Crystal, J.R. Firth, Catford and other linguists and translation theorists agree upon the six levels of formal equivalence, namely, phonetic, phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactical and semantic equivalence. We may throw more light on formal equivalence or â€Å"correspondence† by citing Catford's view. Catford and his views of equivalence in translation: Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida s ince Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday.Catford has defined formal correspondence as â€Å"identity of function of correspondent items in two linguistic systems: for him, a formal correspondent is  «any TL /target language/ category which may be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the  «same » place in the economy of the TL as the given SL/source language/ category occupies in the SL † (Catford, 1965: 32). His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria: 1.The extent of translation (full translation  vs  partial translation); 2. The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation  vs. unbounded translation);   3. The levels of language involved in t ranslation (total translation  vs. restricted translation). We will refer only to the second criterion of translation, since this is the one that concerns the concept of equivalence, and we will then move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts, as elaborated by Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence.In  rank-bound translation  an equivalent is sought in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme encountered in the ST. In  unbounded translation  equivalences are not tied to a particular rank, and we may additionally find equivalences at sentence, clause and other levels. Catford finds five of these ranks or levels in both English and French. Thus, a  formal correspondence  could be said to exist between English and French if relations between ranks have approximately the same configuration in both languages, as Catford claims they do.As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as â⠂¬Ëœdepartures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL' (ibid. :73). Catford argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely  level shifts,  where the SL item at one linguistic level (e. g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e. g. lexis), and  category shifts  which are divided into four types: 1. Structure-shifts,  which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT;  Ã‚   2.Class-shifts,  when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i. e. a verb may be translated with a noun;  Ã‚   3. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank; 4. Intra-system shifts,  which occur when ‘SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system' (ibid. :80). For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural .The Priority of Dynamic Equivalence over Formal Correspondence In view of the difficulty in retaining formal correspondence, and of the fact that all communication is goal-oriented, no matter intralingual or interlingual communication, the move from the source's intention to the receptor's interpretation is quite natural and reasonable. So Nida's dynamic equivalence seems a good way to foster the interlingual communication and it is justified to say that dynamic equivalence often has priority over formal correspondence. C. W.Orr likens translation to painting: â€Å"the painter does not reproduce every detail of the landscape†, he selects what seems best to him, and for a translator, â€Å"it is the spirit, not only the letter that he asks to embody in his own version† (Nida, 1964: 162). Merits and demerits of dynamic equivalence theory As is known to all, translation in essence is a kind of communication, and its main task is to let the target reader understand the m eaning of the original text. Whether a translation is good or not depends largely on whether the target reader understands the original message adequately.However, traditionally, the adequacy of translation is judged only on the basis of the correspondence in words and grammar between the source and target languages, and this is sometimes misleading (Nida, 1993). Since translating means communication, evaluating the adequacy of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices. In short, it cannot stop with a comparison of the verbal forms of the source and target texts.Instead, it should take into consideration the reader's response and comparison should be made between â€Å"the way in which the original receptor understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text† (Nida, 1993 p. 116). Merits It has a lot of merits to t ake into consideration the readers' response and focus on the similarity between the response of the source text readers and that of the target text readers, which include the following aspects: – Rationality of Taking into Consideration the Reader's Response Since translation is mainly intended for its readers to understand, quite naturally, we should take into consideration how the readers interpret the translation, namely, their response to the target text, and compare it with that of the source text readers to the source text. Only when the response o f the source text readers and that of target text readers are similar can we say that the translation is adequate. If we do not take into consideration the readers' response when judging the adequacy of a translation, it is often misleading.As we know, sometimes what seems to be equivalent translation of the original text in terms of lexical, grammatical features may actually distort the meaning. Most earlier approaches to t ranslation have focused attention upon the relationship of the source text to the target text, whether in terms of form or content. The concept of dynamic equivalent translating introduces an important new dimension, namely, the relationship of receptors to the respective texts†¦. [It] deals not merely signs as signs, but focuses on the ways in which verbal signs have meaning for receptors.It is really within such a context that discussions of transnational adequacy and acceptability make sense (Jin Di and Nida, 1984). In short, taking into consideration the readers' response helps to reproduce the original message adequately and guarantee equivalence between the source text and the target text in real sense. B. Avoiding the Debate over Literal Translation versus Free Translation Whether to translate literally or freely is an issue that has long been debated in the translation circle.Some scholars argue for literal translation while others argue for free translation. It seems t hat the two views will never reconcile with each other. However, it is no use arguing which is better, since literal translation and free translation both have their validity and limitations. Instead, it is more helpful, in the author's opinion, to deal with this issue from a different perspective and provide a principle of translation that can well combine them. In a sense, the principle of dynamic equivalence may serve as an effective means to turn aside the debate.Since it focuses on the similar response, any kind of translation, either literal or free, is adequate, so long as it can arouse the similar response. Thus, the debate over literal translation versus free translation tends to be useless, and the choice between them depends on which can better bring about the â€Å"closest natural equivalent† and elicit â€Å"substantially the same response†. C. Freeing the Translator from the Binding of the Original Verbal Form and Increasing Translatability Languages diff er from each other, and each language has its own peculiarities.Sometimes the ways of using language are peculiar to a certain language. In this case, if the translator focuses on the original verbal form, he is usually incompetent. However, if he turns aside from the verbal form and focuses on the similar response, he can sometimes â€Å"crack the nut†. D. More readable and understandable text The advantage of dynamic equivalence is that it usually produces a more readable/understandable Bible version. Early translations of Bible were sometimes obscure and may reach the edge of unintelligibility as they were keen on preserving the original text. DemeritsNida's dynamic equivalence theory is of great practical value, as well verified by his Bible translation. However, it is not almighty and perfect. There are still some doubts which invite argument. A. The abstract nature of dynamic equivalence as a translation criterion The first doubt cast upon the theory is that it is too a bstract to be used as a criterion to judge the quality of a translation. Nida maintains, â€Å"to measure dynamic equivalence, we can only rightly compare the equivalence of response, rather than the degree of agreement between the original source and the later receptors †¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Nida and Taber, 1969: 23).However, the measurement is intuitive, dependent upon subjective judgment, for how can we know exactly the responses of the source language receptors, particularly if the source text was written ages ago? Moreover, the receptors Nida has in mind are the specific readers of certain text and it is their responses that are required to judge the quality of a translation, but he does not request the average readers of the translation to check with the source text, since they do not know or just know a little source language, that is to say, those who judge virtually are not average readers but the critics of a translation or linguists.B. – The degree of â€Å"naturalnessà ¢â‚¬  in translation Moreover, in speaking of â€Å"naturalness†, Nida insists that the best translation should not sound like a translation, but I think otherwise for two reasons: Firstly, language and culture are inseparable. â€Å"Language is an integral part of culture,† John Lyon says, â€Å"and that the lexical distinctions drawn by each language will tend to reflect the culturally-important features of objects, institutions and activities in the society in which the language operates community that uses a particular language as its means of expression†.As translation aims to enable one to get exposed to foreign works, while you are translating a foreign language text, you are introducing its culture as well. The change of some images bearing cultural features will undoubtedly diminish the cultural load of its language and leave unfinished the task of cultural transmission. By naturalizing the translation, dynamic equivalence, to certain degree, has ignor ed the assimilating ability of peoples.In spite of the fact that differences do exist, the similarities between men are finally much greater than the differences†, and â€Å"all members of the species share primal attributes of perception and response which are manifest in speech utterances and which can therefore be grasped and translated. In sum, to sound â€Å"natural† to the receptor is good, while to keep â€Å"foreignness† or â€Å"strangeness† to certain degree is also permissible. In this sense, as far as the preservation of the cultural elements of the source language is concerned, it is desirable that a translation read like a translation. C. The simplification of the source languageWhat also comes under criticism is that dynamic equivalence risks simplifying the source language, even decreasing its literary value. One of the distinctive features of literary works is the frequent use of figurative language and fresh expressions, and the authorâ €™s real intention is to be sought between the lines. If intelligibility or the communicative effect of the receptor language text is always given the priority and all the figurative images in the source text are left out, or all that is implicit is made explicit, then, despite its intelligibility, the receptor language text reads boring and fails the purpose of literature.Therefore, in translating secular literary works, unlike Bible translation, intelligibility should not be solely stressed. In later years Nida has increasingly realized the problem and in his work From One Language to Another, he no longer agrees to the priority of intelligibility but places equal weight on intelligibility, readability and acceptability. D. Modification of Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Correspondence Aware of the defects in his dynamic equivalence theory, Nida continues to modify and perfect his theories, including those concerning formal correspondence.He acknowledges that any element in con nection with receptor language text is meaningful, including the form: â€Å"For effective impact and appeal, form cannot be separated from content, since form itself carries so much meaning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Nida, 1989: 5). If form is sacrificed, meaning is damaged as well, so he cautions the translator not to easily change the form and asks them to achieve as much formal correspondence as possible, which marks a shift from total neglect of form to attaching certain importance to formal elements.Mention should also be made of his replacing â€Å"dynamic equivalence† by â€Å"functional equivalence† in From One Language to Another. No matter how varied the ways of expression of languages are, he holds, they have the same or similar functions, therefore, functional equivalence seems more accurate and precise. E. Risk of imprecise translation The translator is â€Å"freer† from the grammatical forms of the original language, he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language.That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong. Second major contribution: Componential analysis To determine the meaning of any form contrast must be found, for there is no meaning apart from significant differences. Nida (1975: 31) states â€Å"If all the universe were blue, there would be no blueness, since there would be nothing to contrast with blue. The same is true for the meanings of words.They have meaning only in terms of systematic contrasts with other words which share certain features with them but contrastwith them in respect to other features†. Nida in â€Å"Componential Analysis of Meaning† (1975: 32) categorize the types of components into two main types, i. e. common component and diagnostic or distinctive component. a. Common component. This is the central component which is shared by all the lexemes in the same semantic domain or lexical field. b. Diagnostic or distinctive components.They serve to distinguish the meaning from others from the same domain. A very simple example to explain these two types is provided by the words man, woman, boy, girl, and other related words in English (Leech, 1976: 96). These words all belong to the semantic field of ‘human race’ and the relations between them may be represented by the following matrix. components| man| woman| boy| girl| | [human]| +| +| +| +| | [adult]| +| +| -| -| | [male]| +| -| +| -| | Table 1. Common and Diagnostic Components of the words man, woman, boy, and girl.In the semantic domain of man, woman, boy, and girl, [human] is the common component, and they are distinguished by [adult], [male], [female] as the diagnostic components. The meanings of the individual items can then be expressed by combinations of these features: Man +[human ] +[adult] +[male] Woman +[human] +[adult] -[male] Boy +[human] -[adult] +[male] Girl +[human] -[adult] -[male] Before going further with the componential approach, it is important to consider possible differences in the roles of diagnostic components (Nida, 1975: 38).The differences can be best designated as (1) implicational, (2) core, and (3) inferential. Implicational component are those implied by a particular meaning, though they do not form an essential part of the core meaning. On the contrary, implicational components remain associated with a meaning, even when other components are negativized by the context. The word repent has three diagnostic components: (1) previous wrong behavior, (2) contrition for what has been done, and (3) change of behavior, and the first component is implicational. Whether in a positive or negative context, e. . he repented of what he did or he didn’t repent of what he did, the implication is that the person in question did something wrong . The negation affects the core components which specify the central aspects of the event, but does not modify the implicational component. The inferential components of meanings are those which may be inferred from the use of an expression, but which are not regarded as obligatory, core elements. In the expression the policeman shot the thief, ‘the thief was killed’ is the inference, and without further contextual condition assumed to be the case.However, it is possible to deny this inference, e. g. ‘the policeman shot the thief but didn’t kill him’. At the same time an inferential component may be explicitly stated, e. g. the policeman shot the thief to death or the policeman shot and killed the thief. Conclusion Nida is a great figure that contributed great efforts to the development of Translation Theories. His numerous books reflect a prominent translator and researcher as well. His major contribution was the introduction of â€Å"dynamic equiv alence† which represented a shift in attention of the process of translation.Nida's dynamic equivalence contributes a remarkable insight into translating and helps to create an atmosphere of treating different languages and cultures from an entirely new perspective. The concept of dynamic equivalence, despite having some disadvantages but perfection is inaccessible and the concept really formed a milestone along the road of translation studies and theories Works cited 1. Bassnet, Susan & Andre Lefevere, eds.. Translation: History & Culture. London: Casell, 1990. Print 2. Catford, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of translation. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. Print 3. â€Å"Eugene A. Nida. Wikipedia Free Ecyclopedia. Web. 7 April 2013. 4. Jin Di ; Eugene A. Nida. . On Translation: with special Reference to Chinese and English. Beijing: China Translation ; Publish Corporation, 1984. print. 5. Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964. Print. 6. Nida, Eugene A. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975. Print 7. Nida, Eugene A. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993. Print. 8. Nida, Eugene A. ; Charles R. Taber. The theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982. Print. .

Hamlet Thesis

Hamlet Thesis Statement In the play Hamlet, William Shakespeare writes of a tragedy in which Hamlet and Laertes both face the same problem-a murdered father. The paths of revenge that each of them take, parallel their characters and personalities throughout the play. While Hamlet broods over the murder of his father for the majority of the play, Laertes takes immediate action, and upon hearing about the death of his father, he rushes in and is ready to kill Claudius-whom he suspects has killed his father. When they first hear the news of their father’s death, Hamlet and Laertes react in very different ways.When Hamlet hears that Claudius was the one who killed his father, his immediate reaction was grief. This is no surprise, due to the fact that he was still mourning the death of his father, although everyone else had already gotten over it. In fact, most people thought that he was overdoing it ,and Claudius went so far as to tell him that he should get over it, and â€Å"Ye t so far hath discretion fought with nature that we with wisest sorrow think on him together with remembrance of ourselves† (act one, scene two).The way that Hamlet plans his revenge, is more intelligent than the way Laertes plans his. While Hamlet is a more intellectual person, as we can see from his quick wit and sarcasm, Laertes is more impulsive and â€Å"acts, then thinks† as we can see when he says â€Å"I am justly killed with mine own treachery† (act five, scene two). In such a situation, had the play not ended the way it did, Hamlet may have been more successful in avenging his father’s murder because of his responsibility and intellect.Despite the fact that Hamlet procrastinates, Hamlet was smarter in the way he planned his revenge because his procrastination was due to his grief and foresight. Although Laertes trait of acting quickly can be admired and gets the job done, in a situation that involves death and vengeance, strategy and discretion a re a must. From the beginning of the play, we can see that Hamlet is an intellectual thinker. Although he believes the ghost and pronounces that â€Å"it is an honest ghost† (act one, scene five) , he still takes precautions after he promises the ghost that he will take revenge.However, Hamlet is still a little wary of the ghost and therefor decides to feign madness so that he would be able to find out if Claudius was the true killer of his father. Even while feigning madness Hamlet thinks about the whole process of the madness. Unlike Laertes, Hamlet is careful not to disclose what the ghost has told him and only imparts to Horatio and Marcellus what happened when they swear on his sword that they would never speak of what they saw from that point on.One of the reasons why Hamlet is such a procrastinator is because he becomes caught up in the details and potential consequences. In the soliloquy of â€Å"to be or not to be† (act three, scene two) Hamlet loses the will to live and ponders whether it is worth it to exist. Due to the fact that Hamlet suffered the death of his father at a young age as well as well as many other hardships, Hamlet contemplates whether â€Å"Tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against the sea of troubles and by opposing, end them?To die: to sleep; no more;† (act three, scene two). However, after that, Hamlet mentions the potential consequences of the unknown after death. Due to the death of his father and his mother’s hasty remarriage which Hamlet does not approve of, Hamlet is well aware of the consequences of his actions and therefore is hesitant to act rashly. When planning his revenge, Hamlet does not jump to conclusions. When the players come, Hamlet asks them to perform â€Å"The Mousetrap†-a play of a murder similar to that of Hamlet's father's.Hamlet hopes that â€Å"The plays the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the kingâ €  (act two, scene two). Indeed, the plan worked and when Claudius stormed out of the theatre, all of Hamlets suspicions were confirmed. As Hamlet so eloquently noted, â€Å"What, frightened with false fire? †, (act three, scene two) Hamlet was now positive that Claudius was at fault for murdering his father. Another thing that slows Hamlet down in his plan of revenge is that he is a religious catholic, and he is very concerned about mortality.Hamlet is scared that if he kills Claudius, his father’s murderer, his soul will be damned. Hamlet is also scared that if he kills Claudius while he is praying, Claudius will go to heaven and that would not please Hamlet because he said that â€Å"A villain kills my father, and, for that, I, his sole son, do this same villain send to heaven† (act three, scene three). Contrary to Hamlet, Laertes followed the passion in his heart. As soon as he returned from France and heard the news, he invaded the palace, and then asked the questions- the complete opposite of Hamlet.When Laertes hears that Hamlet killed his father, he expresses intense anger and openly announces his plan to take revenge. In his rage, Laertes yells that â€Å"Let what comes come, only I’ll be revenged most thoroughly for my father† (act four, scene five) and makes up his mind to take revenge no matter how or where. When Hamlet heard that his father had been murdered by Claudius, he had already been grieving his father’s death for a while and although the pain was still fresh, his father’s death was old news to him.Therefore, Hamlet was still able to think rationally and plan his revenge in a more intelligent manner. However, when Laertes heard about his father’s murder, he was so grief stricken that he could not think rationally and just followed what his heart told him- to kill Hamlet. Unlike Hamlet, Laertes has no problem â€Å"to cut his throat i' th' church! †(Act four, scene seven). To Laertes, mortality doesn't mean alot, as he so bluntly puts it- â€Å"Conscience and grace, to the profoundest pit! I dare damnation. † (Act four, scene five) Due to his impulsive nature, Laertes tends to be unstable at times.However, Claudius, who suspects Hamlets unusual behavior, joins forces with Laertes to devise a plan to kill Hamlet. This proves a weakness of Laertes'- being unable to carry out his plans singlehandedly. Together, they scheme to kill Hamlet and even come up with a backup plan in case the first one does not go as planned. In the end, his plan of using a poisoned sword backfires when Hamlet ends up using the poisoned sword on him. When weighing in the pros and cons of each of their personalities and flaws, Hamlet took the smarter route in avenging his father’s murder.Although both Hamlet and Laertes die at the end of the play, the reason Hamlet kills himself is because he had nothing to live for. Ophelia, the love of his life was dead, his father was dead and Claudius had died. Since he had nothing to live for, he chose the option of death. On the other hand, Laertes had no choice in the matter because his plan backfired on him and killed him, as we see at the end. Hamlets patience paid off because he, Hamlet achieved his goal, and Laertes, the son of a fishmonger, did not.

Should the Congress Raised the Driving Limited to 21?

should the congress raised the driving limited to 21? The legal driving age has been a constant debate and every few years another log is thrown onto the fire. Should we really raise the legal age to drive? Would it save lives? Today the driving age is 17 or ever younger . In my opinion is should be raise at least to 21 it could be a good idea to rise the driving age because young driver are the main cause of road death and injuries. Also young drivers drink and drive at the same time. If the driving age is 21 deaths would happen and roads would be safer.What do you think should it be raised in this essay I would tell you why it should be raised to age 21. The Highest death rate for driver is among the age 17. Although 4. 4% of drivers are under the age of 25, but they will cause 13% of fatal crashes People aged 16-19 holding a license was at 41% then went down to 26% Also 16-19 years old per 100,000 driving licenses had rise from 9. 76 death to 19. 23 deaths. People taking driving t ests being taken is on increase. It often teenagers driving late at night when most accident occur.According to the survey accomplished in 2005, twelve teens from sixteen to nineteen years old died every day from motor vehicle accident. Around 6,000 teenage drivers are killed in auto accidents each year. They are four times more likely to be killed in car accidents than any other age group. Some good news would be that it will reduce obesity. Driving encourage the population to be come lazy and obese if you cant drive it will forced to walk instead of being in the car and getting bigger.That is not the case many teen get busy these are three main distractions: visual (taking one’s eyes off the road), manual (taking one’s hands off the wheel), and (takings one’s mind away from the driving task) decisions and not taking seriously. In conclusion it should be raised it not safe. A lot of people died each years and the causes are teen are being on their cellphoneâ₠¬ ¦ etc Altogether it could be good to raise the driving age to 21 because the roads would be safer and 21 years old are more mature than 17 year old. The death rate would decrease and the road would safer

Sexuality and Gender in the Therapeutic Relationship

Sexuality and gender in the therapeutic relationship There is a minefield awaiting the counsellor who has not given much time in the study of gender issues in the therapeutic relationship. When we enter a room to see a client, we are encouraged to bring ourselves as a complete person, so we can create a relationship with the client, and thus facilitate the changes he/she needs. To bring ourselves into the relationship we bring all aspects of our identity including our sexuality and our sexual hang-ups and our pre-conceived gender notions. In spite of the fact that we are in a post-Victorian, post Irish catholic guilt, post free love time. We all carry the accumulated burden of our forefathers, educators policy makers and others. Firstly being male or female dictate how we deal with any situation. Whether its talking to our mothers to opening a can. Our gender and how we perceive ourselves in it informs our view of the world. If we look at the profession itself as a whole, counselling is defined by gender. Simply put there are more female counsellors than male by a huge factor. Also there are many more female clients than male. This tells us volumes. The profession is a caring one and is top heavy with those whose gender attract them to the caring professions. This puts a gender bias on all that psychotherapy does. Also the predominance of female clients can put the few male counsellors on their guard. This is because the person sitting opposite us in the room is our client, but also is a woman, with physical attributes and a subject of attraction to the male counsellor. Counselling is a one-to-one relationship that exists between two humans in which one is the focus ant the other is the companion or guide. The sex of the two protagonists is probably the first aspect that will impress upon either one. â€Å"The client coming for the first time might already know that she or he will be seeing a man or a woman. She might have certain expectations as result of this knowledge, for example she might expect a woman to be gentle and supportive and a man to be more judgemental and confrontational. † Palmer (1997) Therapy will tend to be dominated by the structures that society imposes on both the counsellor and the client. Once the therapist is aware of this here are two ways he/she can go. First they can try to act as if they are a â€Å"tabla rasa† or blank slate and be as neutral as possible and hope that by being counsellor first and a sexual being second. This is guaranteed to be a failure, primarily because the blank slate idiom is aspirational and not very practical. Also it goes against concreteness as the therapist will not be â€Å"there† in any real sense and wil l not function in any valid person centred way. The other alternative is â€Å"Explicit treatment†, which put gender issues at centre stage of therapy. This requires a clear understanding of the gender position of both protagonists in the therapeutic relationship. The dynamic between both is not a static situation as the initial meeting causes automatic reaction in the therapist. For example when faced with an attractive female client a male counsellor may think. â€Å"Nice smile, good legs† or â€Å"not pretty†, etc.. This gives way to â€Å"Good speaker, Lovely laugh,. † Then the presenting problem is aired and it would be hoped that the â€Å"skilled helper† mentality kicks in. But the societal hooks have dug into the therapist and may affect his relationship with the client. So until gender is expressed in some way it is hidden and can surface in an unhelpful way. There are many ways that this can be expressed. If part of the problem is self confidence issues, there would be a perfect lead in to a confidence boosting â€Å"You see yourself as ugly but you are an attractive woman with a strong personality. † for example. If the client dresses attractively it may be how she always dresses, perhaps as armour against the world. When people begin to see a counsellor they often see this as a new beginning and the attractive dress of the client might be an expression of her â€Å"newâ€Å" personality, making a strong effort to face the world more robustly, and to leave it uncommented on might do harm to her new-found confidence. Also it may be simple transference, so this should be explored in the therapeutic relationship. Other Gender Issues In our world we are also subject to the â€Å"Dominant Discourse† of our society. These are the system of statements, practices, and structures that share a common value and sustain a world view. It is so easy to let our societies be reflected in the therapy room, especially how we view gender. The best way to insure that society's dominant discourses do not alter the desired â€Å"shape† of therapy is to make gender issues explicit in the therapy dialogue when relevant to the discussion. Explicit treatment can lead to reconstructions of the dominant discourses or at least an opening up to alternative discourses. We make assumptions when we meet clients, Housewife, business man, etc.. The male therapist may feel pressured to â€Å"fix† his female clients â€Å"problems† A female therapist may feel the need when dealing with a male client to display a very strong nurturing role and may avoid challenging her client into action. Conversely the therapist may, when facing a powerful man with attitude to match may become businesslike and direct because that is what society tells us to do when we â€Å"do business†. Same sex client and counsellor can be a problem too. Two people, especially if their backgrounds are similar, can collude with one another and not challenge if the therapist is not aware of the human tendency to let a cosy cartel of collusion to develop between two people of the same sex. There also may be a frisson between two people of the opposite sex and may cause an unease between them just because they are the opposite sex and carry whatever societal burden is imposed on them. The above attitudes are â€Å"static† and can be monitored and adjusted if the counsellor is aware of their presence and their effect can be lessened by self examination, supervision and personal therapy. But there is a more insidious side to gender issues. This is a â€Å"fluid† attitude change. If a male counsellor has been out for a game of rugby with his friends he could have a more â€Å"macho† base to his personality than if he has recently left the embrace of his loving wife and family. This could affect his dealings with a client. How we interact with our fellow man is affected by our experiences immediately before meeting them. An incident while driving may put us in an emotional state where our patience with the opposite sex may be compromised. There is an unfortunate side effect in the way society loudly defines our gender and how it manifests itself. We can become so preoccupied by our gender and the its affect on us in the counselling room that by being careful about how it affects us that we cease to be effective in our dealing with another human. AN ALTERNATIVE VIEW Janet Shibley Hyde of the University of Wisconsin-Madison has reviewed evidence from studies on cognition, communication, social and personality variables, psychological well-being, motor behaviours and other variables. She has turned all these aspects of gender in to one â€Å"meta survey† and came to the conclusion that fully 78% of the much vaunted differences between me and women are small or close to zero. (Hyde, 2005). There are 3 main areas of difference. Sexuality – in particular attitudes to sex in uncommitted relationships, Aggression – Men are usually the more aggressive . Motor performance – Men are better at throwing, jumping, running and such. So why are we so hung up on our differences if there are so few between the genders? Society has painted them in lurid colours and made us believe they are intractable. Perhaps it is not our position as men or women, but our position as humans that looks for differences that are not there, to define us as people. It also reminds us that rather than accuse the nebulous â€Å"Society† of putting a bias on our view of other humans we should remember that we are society ourselves. As Hyde puts it â€Å"It is time to consider the costs of over inflated claims on gender differences. Arguably, they cause harm in numerous realms, including women’s opportunities in the workplace, couple conflict and communication, and analyses of self-esteem problems with adolescents. Most important, these claims are not consistent with the scientific data. † Hyde (2005). Also there is the concept of gender as limiting rather than defining. Judith Butler (1956-) is Professor of Comparative Literature and Rhetoric at the University of California, Berkeley, and is well known as a theorist of power, gender, sexuality and identity. In her most influential book Gender Trouble (1999), Butler gave the history of feminism, a much vaunted alternative to the common view of gender, and argued that they had made a mistake by trying to assert that ‘women' were a group with common characteristics and interests. That approach, Butler said, performed ‘an unwitting regulation and reification of gender relations' — and reinforced the simplistic binary view of gender, albeit from an alternative view. If there are only two sides then no matter what side we choose we still support a simple binary view. Rather than opening up possibilities for a person to form and choose their own individual identity, â€Å"masculinism† never did it and feminism has closed the options down. Butler argues that sex (male, female) is the cause of gender (masculine, feminine) which is seen to cause desire (towards the other gender). Butler's approach is basically to destroy the supposed links between these, so that gender and desire are flexible, unmoored from biology and not 'caused' by other stable factors. Butler says: ‘There is no gender identity behind the expressions of gender; †¦ identity is performatively constituted by the very â€Å"expressions† that are said to be its results. ‘ Butler J. (1999) . In other words, gender is a performance; it's what you do at particular times, rather than a universal who you are. In the counselling room we may be victims of this binary problem. CONCLUSION As I read back over this essay I find that I have no personal recognisable stance on the issue of gender and sexuality. Perhaps I have had the fortune to be brought up in a liberal, forward thinking household and am less affected by society’s strictures. But alternatively I may be carrying around significant biases but not realise it. Also, if Hyde is right, I may be carrying around biases for differences that in the main part do not exist and this essay is a figment of my own imagination, an illusion that I share with the rest of humanity. And if I carry such a burden, the all of my fellow human carry similar ones so perhaps they cancel each other out. If we are to be real in the counselling room and we subscribe to Ms. Butlers ideas that unless we are careful to separate from gender we continue to perform the dance that we have been trained to do for millennia. BIBLIOGRAPHY Palmer Stephen, McMahon Gladeana, (1997), â€Å"Handbook of Counselling† page 272, Routledge. New York. Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6), 581-92. And 590. Butler Judith (1999) â€Å"Gender Trouble† p 25. Routledge New York